Sensory Adaptation

When people move to a new environment, they might experience a sense of discomfort. Consider a situation when a person enters a room that has an extremely foul smell. Initially the environment is overwhelming and the person feels like vomiting. However, with perseverance the foul smell seem to reduce in intensity and no longer overwhelms the person.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Sensory Adaptation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The person has gotten over the smell and can live with it. The sensory nerves thus stop being sensitive to the strong smell and adapt to the environment. Psychologists have termed this phenomenon as sensory adaptation. This adaptation helps people to live comfortably in new environments and still balance the need to receive sensory stimulus. Sensory adaptation is possible to all the five senses namely, sight, sound, touch smell and taste. However, the sensation that does not adapt easily is the sense of pain. In the event that a person is burnt, the smell of burnt flesh disappears quickly but the pain lingers on for longer period (Smith Wallace, 2011). The purpose of this paper is to describe the process of sensory adaptation in human beings through a series of experiments. The first experiment involves the sense of touch. I rubbed my index finger over a very coarse sand paper for one minute. On a scale of 1 to 7, where 7 is very course, I rated the paper at 7. I waited for minute and rubbed with the same finger again. However, upon the second turn the paper seemed less coarse. I rated its level of coarseness at four. My sense of touch had become less sensitive to the sense of touch. During the process of the experiments, a number of sensory activities took place in my nervous system. Upon touching the sandpaper, the dendrites receive the stimulus and process it in the cell body. After processing, this information is transferred by the axon as a chemical si gnal through the synapse, which may or may not be located in that muscle cell. This chemical message, the neurotransmitter, is picked by the sensory neurons and transmitted to the brain through the spinal tract located in the spinal cord. Inside the brain, the cerebrum receives this stimulation, which is then transferred to the Somatosensory Cortex. This organ in the brain perceives the level of the coarseness of the sandpaper and immediately reacts by sending a message back to the finger through the motor neurons. This message commands the sensory cells to become less sensitive to stimulation. Thus the sandpaper seems less coarse a second time (Slideshare, 2011; Moini, 2008). This seems to be a very long process but it takes millisecond from initiation to completion. This is because the central nervous system is equipped to respond to stimulus and make split second decision.Advertising Looking for assessment on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper wit h 15% OFF Learn More The second experiment involved the sense of taste. I took two glasses of water and added sugar into one. I sipped the water from the glass that I had added sugar and swished in my mouth for about fifteen seconds. I noticed that my sweet glands became less sensitive to the sweetness of water towards the end the fifteenth second. I then sipped the sugarless water in swished it in my mouth for a few seconds. I noticed that the water tasted salty, despite the fact that I had not put any salt into the water. There was sensory adaptation in my taste buds when I tasted water with sugar. My senses became excessively stimulated that when I tasted the sugarless water it seemed salty. The taste cells in the taste buds pick up the very sweet sense, which is dissolved into the taste pore. The taste pore transducts the chemical message to the nerves, and the neurotransmitter is then activated and transferred to the synapses into the brain. This releases electrolytes, which connect with receptors located inside the taste membrane. This stimulates numerous taste buds in the tongue that can detect the strong taste of sugar (Slideshare, 2011). The above experiments prove that human beings are equipped to adapt to different environments. Adaptation is the natural way of responding to new environments, it is an â€Å"automatic relationship between input of a new environment and the physical response of organism† (Edward, 2002). It is natural for human beings to adapt to new environments. Adaptation may occur through natural selection where the best-fitted human beings survive in a new environment. This exposure will result in the necessary phenotypic adaptation. The human genotype responds by aligning the genotypic make up which is transferred to the subsequent offspring and thus evolutionary adaptation occurs. In conclusion, human beings are biologically equipped to adapt to new environments. Our senses progressively become less sensitive to new stimuli, thus making it easy to live in that new environment. Evolution is a product of adaptation. However, not all living things adapt to new environment easily as they may have physiological weaknesses. On the short term, individuals develop complications. But when exposed to new environment for a longer time extinction occurs. List of References Edward, L. (2002). Evolutionary psychology: An emerging integrative perspective within the science and practice of psychology. The Human Nature Review, 2(17-61).Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Sensory Adaptation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Moini, J. (2008). Focus on pharmacology: Essentials for health professional. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Slide share (2011). Sensory adaptation experiment. Retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/CarlaMcCoy/sensory-adaptation-experiment Smith S. Wallace, O (2011). What is sensory adaptation? Wisegeek. Re trieved from https://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-sensory-adaptation.htm This assessment on Sensory Adaptation was written and submitted by user Ainsley Owen to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Genre Example

Genre Example Genre – Coursework Example The characteristic of this genre can be termed as a white paper since it is criticizing and arguing certain information and notions put across by various reports and documents. Audiences to white papers expect arguments about certain points in previous reports or articles. Organizations use white papers to mainly put forward ideas in an open-ended manner that is also arguing other reports and documents. Most genres of writings are bound by certain rules so that they can be categorized and resourceful to the people who will use them. Forms of genres are mostly fixed. This is because a variation of a certain form will form a different genre. From this article, I have learnt on how to approach several issues using the required technique when it comes to presenting them in writing.Formalism is a type of writing that critics literature without paying attention to any other facts. A formalist article only focuses on the said article, report or proposal without analyzing the sources, histor y or author of the literature. Formalism is, therefore, a very important form of criticism because it has an independent approach towards the literature in question. It steers clear of any other historical issues regarding the article, but focuses on the content, context and stylistic features of an article that integrate to piece up the whole literature.The examples given by Rude are quite understandable. The theoretical problems are debatable problems hence their reports contain pros and cons of the matter being discussed. Empirical problems are factual in nature, and are based on tests and observations made, thus, their reports give the observations and facts found. On the other hand, practical problems are those that require a choice to be made; hence, their reports give a course of action.Rude feels like rhetoric is important in decision making because it assists in breaking down the findings of a report. Rhetoric assists in ascertaining the facts and displaying the effects of the said facts in a report hence its importance. According to Frances (89), the use of rhetoric as a style can be perfect in the writing of decision-making reports.From this article, I have learnt that the kind of report I write will be subject to the nature of the problem at hand. This means that decision-making depends on the issue at hand. This means that without being too much formalistic, the kind of problem will determine the kind of report to write for the purposes of decision-making.Work CitedRanney, Frances . Aristotles Ethics and Legal Rhetoric: An Analysis of Language Beliefs, and the Law. Aldershot : Ashgate, 2005. Print.

Biography of Harry S. Truman, 33rd U.S. President

Biography of Harry S. Truman, 33rd U.S. President Harry S. Truman (May 8, 1884–December 26, 1972) became the 33rd president of the United States following the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt on April 12, 1945. Not well known when he took office, Truman gained respect for his role in the development of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan and for his leadership during the Berlin Airlift and the Korean War. He defended his controversial decision to drop atomic bombs on Japan as a necessity to end World War II. Fast Facts: Harry S. Truman Known For: 33rd president of the United StatesBorn: May 8, 1884 in Lamar, MissouriParents: John Truman, Martha YoungDied: Dec. 26, 1972 in Kansas City, MissouriPublished Works: Year of Decisions, Years of Trial and Hope (memoirs)Spouse: Elizabeth â€Å"Bess† TrumanChildren: Margaret Truman DanielNotable Quote: An honest public servant cant become rich in politics. He can only attain greatness and satisfaction by service. Early Life Truman was born on May 8, 1884, in Lamar, Missouri to John Truman and Martha Young Truman. His middle name, simply the letter S, was a compromise made between his parents, who couldnt agree upon which grandfathers name to use. John Truman worked as a mule trader and later a farmer, frequently moving the family between small Missouri towns before settling in Independence when Truman was 6. It soon became apparent that young Harry needed glasses. Banned from sports and other activities that might break his glasses, he became a voracious reader. Hard Work After graduating from high school in 1901, Truman worked as a timekeeper for the railroad and later as a bank clerk. He had always hoped to go to college, but his family couldnt afford tuition. More disappointment came when Truman learned that he was ineligible for a scholarship to West Point because of his eyesight. When his father needed help on the family farm, Truman quit his job and returned home. He worked on the farm from 1906 to 1917. Long Courtship Moving back home had one benefit: proximity to childhood acquaintance Bess Wallace. Truman had first met Bess at age 6 and had been smitten from the start. Bess came from one of the wealthiest families in Independence and Truman, the son of a farmer, had never dared pursue her. After a chance encounter in Independence, Truman and Bess began a courtship that lasted nine years. She finally accepted Trumans proposal in 1917, but before they could make wedding plans, World War I intervened. Truman enlisted in the Army, entering as a first lieutenant. Shaped by War Truman arrived in France in April 1918. He had a talent for leadership and was soon promoted to captain. Placed in charge of a group of rowdy artillery soldiers, Truman made it clear to them that he wouldnt tolerate misbehavior. That firm, no-nonsense approach would become the trademark style of his presidency. The soldiers came to respect their tough commander, who steered them through the war without the loss of a single man. Truman returned to the U.S. in April 1919 and married Bess in June. Makes a Living Truman and his new wife moved into her mothers large home in Independence. Mrs. Wallace, who never approved of her daughters marriage to a farmer, would live with the couple until her death 33 years later. Never fond of farming himself, Truman was determined to become a businessman. He opened a mens clothing store in nearby Kansas City with an Army buddy. The business was successful at first but failed after only three years. At 38, Truman had succeeded at few endeavors aside from his wartime service. Eager to find something he was good at, he looked to politics. Enters Politics Truman successfully ran for Jackson County judge in 1922 and became well known for his honesty and strong work ethic on this administrative (not judicial) court. During his term, he became a father in 1924 when daughter Mary Margaret was born. He was defeated in his try for re-election but ran again two years later and won. When his last term expired in 1934, Truman was courted by the Missouri Democratic Party to run for the U.S. Senate. He rose to the challenge, campaigning tirelessly across the state. Despite poor public speaking skills, he impressed voters with his folksy style and record as a soldier and judge, soundly defeating the Republican candidate. Sen. Truman Becomes President Truman Working in the Senate was the job Truman had waited for his entire life. He took a leading role in investigating wasteful spending by the War Department, earning the respect of fellow senators and impressing President Roosevelt. He was re-elected in 1940. As the 1944 election drew near, Democratic leaders sought a replacement for Vice President Henry Wallace. Roosevelt himself requested Truman. FDR then won his fourth term with Truman on the ticket. In poor health and suffering from exhaustion, Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945, only three months into his last term, making Truman president of the United States. Thrust into the limelight, Truman faced some of the greatest challenges encountered by any 20th-century president. World War II was drawing to a close in Europe, but the war in the Pacific was far from over. Atomic Bomb Truman learned in July 1945 that scientists working for the U.S. government had tested an atomic bomb in New Mexico. After much deliberation, Truman decided that the only way to end the war in the Pacific would be to drop the bomb on Japan. Truman issued a warning to the Japanese demanding their surrender, but those demands werent met. Two bombs were dropped, the first on Hiroshima on Aug. 6, 1945, and the second three days later on Nagasaki. In the face of such utter destruction, the Japanese surrendered. Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan As European countries struggled financially following WWII, Truman recognized their need for economic and military aid. He knew that a weakened country would be more vulnerable to the threat of communism, so he pledged to support nations facing such a threat. Trumans plan was called the Truman Doctrine. Trumans secretary of state, former Gen. George C. Marshall, believed that the struggling nations could survive only if the U.S. supplied the resources needed to return them to self-sufficiency. The Marshall Plan, passed by Congress in 1948, provided the materials needed to rebuild factories, homes, and farms. Berlin Blockade and Re-Election in 1948 In the summer of 1948, the Soviet Union set up a blockade to keep supplies from entering West Berlin, the capital of democratic West Germany but located in Communist East Germany. The blockade of truck, train, and boat traffic was intended to force Berlin into dependence upon the communist regime. Truman stood firm against the Soviets, ordering that supplies be delivered by air. The Berlin Airlift continued for nearly a year, until the Soviets finally abandoned the blockade. In the meantime, despite a poor showing in opinion polls, Truman was re-elected, surprising many by defeating popular Republican Thomas Dewey. Korean Conflict When Communist North Korea invaded South Korea in June 1950, Truman weighed his decision carefully. Korea was a small country, but Truman feared that communists, left unchecked, would invade other countries. Within days, Truman had gained approval for U.N. troops to be ordered to the area. The Korean War began and it lasted until 1953, after Truman left office. The threat had been contained, but North Korea remained under communist control. Back to Independence Truman chose not to run for re-election in 1952, and he and Bess returned to their home in Independence in 1953. Truman enjoyed the return to private life and busied himself with writing his memoirs and planning his presidential library. He died at the age of 88 on Dec. 26, 1972. Legacy When Truman left office in 1953, the lengthy stalemate between North and South Korea had left him one of the most unpopular presidents in history. But that sentiment gradually changed over time as historians began to reassess his terms in office, crediting him with keeping South Korea independent from the communist neighbor to the north. He began to be respected as a folksy straight shooter and the ultimate common man for his leadership in troubled times and his willingness to take responsibility, exemplified by the plaque on his presidential desk that read â€Å"The Buck Stops Here!† Sources Harry S. Truman: President of the United States. Encyclopaedia Britannica.Harry S Truman: 1945-1953. The White House Historical Association.

Change Management process Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Change Management process - Coursework Example In addition accept changes in the current business environment and embracing the desired change. Organizational change is a planned approach for ensuring smooth transition and successfully implementation of change (Hayes 150). The business needs to keep changing to remain relevant in the industry. Changes in the organization are brought about by internal and external factors of the business. According to Jabri (20) internal drivers to change in any business include: To compete effectively, it is mandatory at times for businesses to change their strategies. Adjustment in business strategies is in response to external environments. These adjustments may involve changing some fundamental approaches by the business like the target market. Structural changes in the business may involve changing the hierarchy of authority. These changes are influence by internal and external factors. All changes in the management of the business are structural. Structural changes may involve change in management or change in simple polices in the organization. The business may be forced to reengineer its processes to optimize on productivity. The introduction of the machine in the business is one way of changing the process. This internal driver influences only organization’s with production processes. SolarTech Ltd. is influenced by this type of driver. Restructuring of the organization is crucial to benefit from new technologies. The main goal for any organization is minimizing costs and maximizing revenue. According to Treat (160), technology helps maximizing output while minimizing inputs. With that in mind the organization changes its structure for the new technologies to save labour costs. The introduction of the new machine is due to this driver to change. This is a modern internal driver to change. The tradition notion of ‘going to work’ has changed drastically in many organizations. A recent survey has shown

Facilitating Changes In Health and Social Care Essay

Facilitating Changes In Health and Social Care - Essay Example These changes include legal, political, demographic, organizational, technology, and cultural. Poor change in management never works well as it creates resistance and stress. It is essential for the manager to learn an effective way on how to manage the change and help others in this crucial continual process for there to be service delivery that is effective. This paper introduces the readers to a variety of factors that can influence change. Furthermore, it provides the effect of the change to the users, staffs and organization, and the key principles of change management that is successful. The political factor is one of the factors that have a significant impact on the health and social care services. There is the introduction of some key changes by the Act of Social care and Health to the NHS in England. These changes came into existence on April 1, 2013. Some of these changes included; providing the clinical commission groups a good budget to obtain care on behalf of the local community. Also, the shifts of many responsibilities which have historically been in the Health Department to a new NHS Commission Board that is politically independent. Furthermore, the health and social act has a health specific economic regulator with the responsibility to guard against practices that are anti-competitive and also to move all NHS trust to foundation trust status (Peate, 2012). Another factor that drives change is the economic factor. Sin the year 2002, the NHS has operated on the basis of the market with a split between the provider of health care and purchase. From January 2006 and continues, every patient could choose there secondary care from their hospital of choice, and this created competition among the hospitals to attract the patients and secure their revenue. Quite numbers of researchers have examined the impact of this competitive market on clinical outcome. However, the researchers found some positive outcomes findings; competition has been

Pros and Cons of Creative Labour

Pros and Cons of Creative Labour Assignment question: Critically evaluate the concept of creative labour. Is it good or bad for workers and society? For the last 20-30 years the information, communication technology, media and services and industries have become the most essential and demanded things in the modern world. They bring people new opportunities, which can simplify people’s needs and wants. I believe this Charles Landry claimed : suggests â€Å"that the developments made are essentially cultural as they reflect the way people perceive their problems and opportunities† (Charles Landry). The important point here is that these technologies and services designed and developed by humanity, are what we now call the ‘creative labour’ market. â€Å"Creativity is essential to the way we live and work today, and in many senses always has been† (Florida, 2002 p. 21). The purpose of this essay is to critically evaluate the concept of creative labour in order to answer the question: â€Å"Is it good or bad for workers and society in our world†. Debate continues as to what creativity is exactly, what it means to be creative and how this fits into society and the wider economic environment. John Hawkins (2002) claimed that the best way to define creativity as ‘having a new idea’; he argued that our society needs information. He also advocated that we need to be active, clever, and persistent in challenging this information. In his words, â€Å"there is a need to be original, sceptical, argumentative, often bloody-minded and occasionally downright negative – all these things make us creative. However, it leads us to the question: â€Å"where does this creativity take place?† It is possible to say that creativity is produced by creative industries and it would be the right answer, but in our society, creativity can take place anywhere†. As Hawkins (2002) said, â€Å"creativity is where the brain works in the determining motive†. The psychologist Dean Keith Simonton argued that creativity is favoured by an intellect that has been enriched with diverse experiences and perspectives. Creativity is associated with a mind that exhibits a variety of interests and knowledge (Florida, 2002 p. 33). Peter Drucker said that â€Å"knowledge† and â€Å"information† are the tools and materials of creativity (Florida, 2002 p.44). Because of the ideological freight of its specific features, creative work heightens and denaturalises normal principles of work. In creative work’s marginal context, normal principles of work seem to contradict broader social values. (Theorising Cultural Work, 2013 p.74) To conclude this point, creativity is where thoughts are not ordinary, aesthetic, individual, smart and clever. A creative person innovates, produces, provides and develops new ideas and concepts. Creativity covers social, cultural and economic areas. The creative-labour market is crucial for workers. A creative worker is someone that communicates with society. The creative worker innovates, creates and develops for people; they focus on production. Raymond Williams claimed that creative workers are different from other workers, â€Å"The creative worker makes the communication of experience their central work in life – the artist’s work is the actual work of transmission and uses learned skills to transmit that experience†. â€Å"Creativity involves distinct kinds of thinking and habits that must be cultivated both in the individual and in the surrounding society† (Florida, 2002 p.21). Creative industry workers are organised and mobilised so time constraints such as normal office hours and workspaces are not set in stone. Creative workers are very influential, they form the core of the economy: science, engineering, architecture and design, education, arts, music and entertainment – even finance , law and healthcare. The creative class generates wealth and happiness – local government should develop policies to cultivate them (Florida, 2002). The creative process is social, not just individual, and thus forms of organisation are necessary (Florida, 2002). Creative work is a cooperative and independent model of production. Creative labour is power to people, where a person can take control over things they are going to create and choose how they relate to the world around them. Creativity breeds freedom, autonomy and choice, aspects which make the employee feel empowered, comfortable and in control. Free agents, so the argument goes, are able to break free from the stranglehold of large organisations and take control of their lives. (Florida, 2002 p.28). Another huge benefit for creative workers are good working condition, you can work not only at an office, but you could be in a film or radio studio, atelier, at home or even travelling across the world. Being creative is in itself a challenge, dependent upon many factors including interest and involvement from society. One example of the challenges could be an interview taken from Creative Labour. Media work in three cultural industries, told by faced is below – a documentary producer, Malcolm who shares his experience of working in the creative industries: â€Å"I have had an amazing life. I have watched democracy come to Argentina, witnessed the most violent riots they had in country for 50 years. I was there when the gate of Gaza were opened. I’ve been attacked by the KGB. I’ve filmed with the Contras in Nicaragua, all kinds of places and amazing experiences from plane[WU1] crashes to sharing terrible tragic moments to moments of great elation. I have seen so much of the world and I have been paid to do that. So it has been a very intense life with great experiences and I am glad I had it. (Interview 37 p. 128 â€Å"Creative Labour. Media work in three cultural industries) The Malcolm interview explains that the experience and skills the workers earn in creative labour area cannot be found or reproduced, or recreated in other areas, but moments in history can be captured by individuals and reflected back to a wider audience. This not only provides opportunities to be a witness of history in the making but also be part of this history. To conclude, the issue of creative work is complex and contradictory – a mixture of autonomy, glamour and exploitation, inequality and precarious conditions. Media companies operating in fields as diverse and interconnected as public relations, marketing, advertising[WU2] and journalism have traditionally been considered cultural industries, representing those companies and professions primarily responsible for the industrial production and circulation of culture. (Hesmondhalgh, 2002 p. 163) In the ongoing academic debate on the definition of culture (or cultural) industries, media production tends to be emphasised as particular to the field of action of the companies and corporations involved. In recent years, policy makers, industry observers and scholars alike have reconceptualised media work as taking place within a broader context of creative industries. The term was introduced by the UK government Department of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) in 1998, defining creative industries as: those industries which have their origin in individual creativity, skill and talent and which have a potential for wealth and job creation through the generation and exploitation pf intellectual property. This includes advertising, architecture, the art and antiques market, crafts, design, designer fashion, film and video, interactive leisure software and computer games, television and radio. Creativity also has some negative effects on workers. The ‘creative process’ can take a long time and there is a high level of risk. In recent times, technological advances have increased so rapidly, that adopting and working with the new technologies can make workers feel uncomfortable and left behind somewhat. With the economy as it is currently, and such high levels of unemployment, workers in the creative industries can struggle to maintain their career progress. This has led to a high level of competition and creates high levels of stress, but ultimately results in progress. David Hesmondhaulgh, a prominent academic and a director of Media Industries Research Centre stated in his book that ‘creative labour and creativity is the big aspect for media workers[WU3]’(Hesmondhalgh 2002 p.168). In his opinion professional identity of creative industries involves four constituent elements: content, connectivity, creativity and commerce (Ibid) Professionals in media industries in particular and creative industries more generally produce content, yes. However, they also invest in platforms for connectivity – where fans and audiences provide free labour. Media work involves the ‘creation’ with the industries, yes, but tends to take place within a distinctly commercial context. Within a context of destabilising legacy industries and dissolving boundaries between media consumption and production, the media worker may feel isolated. However, this isolation can give some creative control to the media professional as well. Arthur (1994) suggests that â€Å"creating a career without boundaries could be the best, if not only, way to survive in the current work environment†. To some extent, individuals could be seen as taking control of their career paths, resulting in a new type of self-directed job security. It could also be said that those who are willing to train themselves, become more[WU4] attractive to management and employers. By being proficient in various methods of media production, workers can use multiple creative talents to their advantage – and are increasingly expected to be doing so. In the everyday construction of a sense of self for cultural workers – that leads to a more or less coherent (or at least imagined) professional identity – it is the interplay between the values of providing[WU5] content, organising connectivity, managing creative freedom and being commercially successful (which is not necessarily an expression in monetary terms) that structures one’s negotiations. There is an argument to say that working in the creative industries would seem to allow the individual to identify themselves as a single producer of content and as part of a larger whole, whereas the intermediate level of the company or organisation seems to disappear. (David Hesmondhalgh, 2002) Society massively benefits from creative and cultural labour. Creative workers are constantly thinking about what audiences’ think, what they want and work on ways of delivering this. There is huge demographic analysis and numerous surveys undertaken in either new creations of technological innovations, the making of new TV shows, art, literature and other various media platforms. Creative workers make products for people and society. As Maurizio Lazzarato[WU6] said: â€Å"The image of society is dominated by knowledge and information work† (Lazzarato, 1996). Creativity and creative labour have a huge effect not only on workers and industries, but also on society and the world. London is a perfect example of a city of huge world status, which is defined and almost created by its cultural identity, practices and the development of its creative industries. Industries present in the capital are internationally oriented and diversified; which in itself cultivates the necessary support for both local and international creative activity. This type of activity makes London a more attractive environment to people that are artistic, thus resulting in the development of the city in economic, social and cultural ways. Charles Landry, (1997) claimed, â€Å"Cultural activities are inextricable to innovation and creativity, and historically this has been the lifeblood of cities as a means of unleashing their capacity to survive and adapt†. The places where the creativity and cultural activities took place in large lead only to development and gr owth of characteristic mentioned above. The cultural and creative industries are part of what is commonly referred to as the ‘service and knowledge economy’. Writers who stress the role of creative (as a source of competitive advantage) point to the injection of ‘creative’ work into all areas of economic life. (Andy Pratt, 2006). Another important point to make here is that creative labour and creative industries create the so-called â€Å"New Economy†. The New Economy, is defined as the transition from ‘heavy industry’ to a new technology based economy. Creative labour is very connected to this concept because the provision of information and communication technologies (ICTs) is central to determining our economy be dynamic rather than just stable. Terry Flew (2001) stated that the core dynamics of this economic system arose out of the fusion of technologies of knowledge generation, information processing, and symbol communication with the processes of globalisation, digitisat ion and networking. He stated that these have led to the rise of the network society as the dominant form of social organisation. The point Terry Flew makes, is that creative industries and labour, whilst providing knowledge, new ideas and innovation of technologies make a huge contribution and are central to the development of our economy, which brings only benefits to our society and world as a whole. In so-called ‘old economy’ markets are stable, in ‘new economy’ markets are dynamic, the scope of completion are less national, more global. Manufacturing used to be at the core of our economy, now everything is centred around services, knowledge and information. The source of value in ‘old economy’ is raw materials or physical capital; you could say that now, more value is placed on human resources and social capital. In business areas, key drivers of growth was capital and labour, now is about innovation, knowledge and networking. The main source of competitive advantage was lowering cost through scale, but now is made by innovation, quality and the depth and breadth of communication. The innovation of new information and communication technologies made by creative labour has changed the tastes of business and economy workers, people started to gain broad skills and adaptability when previously they have basic job-specific skills. Innovation a nd creativity make society think and discover differently in a way that is developing all the time. To conclude, creativity, creative labour and creative industries are great, significant and essential thing in our world. Creative labour creates and innovates things, new technologies, it provides new theories and information, which affects and influences workers, people, and the overall economy. It makes social and cultural life of people, cities and the world more positive and our ways of working smarter. Creative industries is useful for workers, especially media because of its highly popular graduate employment destinations with glamorous and exciting places to work alongside other highly educated, highly skilled workers. Creativity took place in media and communications. These are: advertising, architecture, the art and antiques market, crafts, design, designer fashion, film, interactive leisure software, music, the performing arts, publishing, software, television and radio. (Creative Industries Task Force, 1998) Reference Baker S. and Hesmondhalgh, D. (2011). Creative Labour. Media Work In Three Cultural Industries. Routledge Blair, H. (2001). ‘â€Å"You’re Only as Good as Your Last Job†: the Labour Process and Labour Market in the British Film Industry.’ Work, Employment and Society. 15(1): 149-169. Florida, R. (2004). The Rise of the Creative Class: And how it’s Transforming Work, Leisure, Community and Everyday Life. London: Basic Books. Flew, T. (2012). The Creative Industries: Culture and Policy. London: Sage Gill, R. and Pratt, A. (2008). ‘In the social factory? Immaterial labour, precariousness and cultural work’. Theory, Culture and Society. 25(1): 2-30 Hartley, J. (2005). Creative Industries. Blackwell. Oxford Hesmondhalgh, D. (2007). The Cultural Industries, 2nd Edition. London: Sage [WU1]Done paraphrasing [WU2]Done paraphrasing [WU3]Check para [WU4]Done in next page [WU5]Working on it [WU6]Can’t find a particular sentence in the book

Notes on American Literature Essay

Important figures:  ·Sir Walter Raleigh ? traveler, Elizabeth’s I lover, poet, soldier, died in Tower of London. A famous English writer, poet, courtier and explorer. He was responsible for establishing the second English colony in the New World (after Newfoundland was established by Sir Humphrey Gilbert nearly one year previously, August 5 1583) on June 4, 1584, at Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina. When the third attempt at settlement failed, the ultimate fate of the colonists was never authoritatively ascertained.  ·John Winthrop ? governor of Massachusetts. led a group of English Puritans to the New World, joined the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 and was elected their first governor on April 8, 1630. Between 1639 and 1648 he was voted out of governorship and re-elected a total of 12 times. Although Winthrop was a respected political figure, he was criticized for his obstinacy (stubborn) regarding the formation of a general assembly in 1634. Calvin’s influence:  ·theory of predestination, limited redemption  ·self trials to find destiny  ·the only hope was faith in God.  ·God’s goodwill ? irresistible grace  ·faith makes everyone good but good deeds without faith don’t work  ·one should follow their destiny, ex. become a farmer, following destiny will make you successful, (wealthy) but you shouldn’t don’t spend money, invest it!  ·the holy act of making money for God Puritans were waiting for signs, they read ? books to read’ (the Bible), interpreted it, interpreted history in their own, Puritan way. Anything could be a sign (weather conditions, Indian attacks, diseases, famine, etc. ). Puritan faith:  ·grim, no paintings, no music  ·sermons were extremely important as they interpreted the Bible Michael Wigglesworth: (1631-1705)  ·wrote The Day of Doom (1662) – his poem represents puritan thought of the time. Many of the puritans memorized it and used it to get people back into the church. They used it to teach children and lingering adults. This was the first â€Å"best seller†, even though this term wasn’t used yet. It describes the Day of Judgment and the sentencing to punishment in hell of sinners and of infants who died before baptism. Samuel Danforth: (1626-1674)  ·In 1670, he was invited to give the annual election sermon to the General Assembly, which was afterwards printed as A Brief Recognition of New-England’s Errand into the Wilderness (about turning nature into civilization) and is regarded as one of the finest examples of the â€Å"jeremiad† form  ·jeremiad sermons – explained things form the Bible, created context, it said that future is glorious because we can be better, improve ourselves History interpretations: Cotton Mather: (1663-1728).  ·Magnalia Christi Americana (about religious development of Massachusetts, and other nearby colonies in New England from 1620 to 1698); the English title was The Ecclesiastical History of New England (1702)  ·he also wrote descriptions of the Salem Witch Trials, in which he criticizes some of the methods of the court and attempts to distance himself from the event; account of the escape Hannah Dustan, one of the most famous to captivity narrative scholars; his complete â€Å"catalogus† of all the students that graduated from Harvard College, and story of the founding of Harvard College itself; and his assertions that Puritan slaveholders should do more to convert their slaves to Christianity  ·made a heritage, typological approach 08. 10. 2007 Religious texts: – sermons ? instruments of communication between the minister and the people – theological thesis – chronicles (historical) Mary Rowlandson (1635-7 ? 1678)  ·She was a colonial American woman, who wrote a vivid description of the seven weeks and five days she spent living with Native Americans. Her short book,  ·A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson (1682), is considered a seminal work in the American literary genre of captivity narratives. The first phase of heroic period ? first 30 years, after that a serious problem occurred? experience of conversion, but not everyone did it so what to do with their children? 1662 ? Halfway Covenant (by Senate in Boston) ? salvation is heredity even if they didn’t experienced it. 17th century was more flexible what led to great religious revival in the US, literary phenomenon, outburst of religious emotions ?  thus texts. George Whitefield ? a rhetorician, preacher, appealed to American people, triggered religious revival. The Great Awakening: (1735 ? 1750)  ·paradoxical movement, they considered themselves as only true Puritans but they were considered almost heretical movement, their enthusiasm had negative connotations, people thought they should be more rational  ·leaders: Jonathan Edwards who wrote a fire-and-brimstone sermon entitled Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God (1741), he believed in Protestant dogma, he wanted people to experience real conversion, was against formal  sermons, he had a hypnotic way of teaching, appealing to emotions, he was forced to move and live in wilderness, died of smallpox. He was an active philosopher, tried to combine old religion with Locke’s new approach to religion.  ·the movement (the Great Awakening) was the last significant moment to regain control by Puritans Edwards vs. Franklin ? they lived in the same time, enlightenment competing with the old heritage Franklin was born in Boston and he wanted to move to Philadelphia ? city of enlightenment, Quakers, city owned by William Penn. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)  ·Autobiography (written in 1771 – 1790) -Learning model behavior, proposed model human being, he would respond to the beauty of the world, and nature as a living presence of God, story of narrator’s progress from Boston to Philadelphia, devoted himself to common good, he made success count most (financial in your own eyes and prestige in others’ eyes) -12 commandments, it’s good to imitate Jesus and Socrates (although Socrates was a pagan and a suicider)  ·Poor Richard’s Almanac -was a yearly almanack published by Benjamin Franklin, who adopted the pseudonym of â€Å"Poor Richard† or â€Å"Richard Saunders† for this purpose. The publication appeared continuously from 1732 to 1758. It was a best seller for a pamphlet published in the American colonies; print runs reached 10,000 per year. Franklin, the American inventor, statesman, and publisher, achieved success with Poor Richard’s Almanack. Almanacks were very popular books in colonial America, with people in the colonies using them for the mixture of seasonal weather forecasts, practical household hints, puzzles, and other amusements they offered. Poor Richard’s Almanack was popular for all of these reasons, and also for its extensive use of wordplay, with many examples derived from the work surviving in the contemporary American vernacular. Addressed to farmers (almanacs), useful information about farming, weather, astronomy, moral advice, many proverbs, (for example â€Å"God helps those who help themselves† what is opposite to Puritan philosophy), Do good papers, colonies literature. Franklin developed practical procedure of self improvement day by day and step by step to be thoroughly rational human being. political literature ? debate between Federalists and anti-Federalists Americans identified with Ancient Rome, that’s why the Declaration was born. The creators were educated, they read Greek, Roman works, developed sense of public virtue, conflict with the British Crown. Locke, Milton ? inspired colonies to develop ideology to sewer the ties with the Crown + â€Å"no taxation without representation† Thomas Paine (1737-1809)  ·in 1774 ? came to America as an old man, in 1776 he published Common sense, an anti-British book about Britain illegal financial abuse, appealed to Americans self-confidence, enough to be independent, to shape their destiny by determination, stamina, brains etc. The document denounced British rule and, through its immense popularity, contributed to stimulating the American Revolution. Hartford Wits (also called the Connecticut Wits) A group of American writers centered around Yale University and flourished in the 1780s and 1790s. Mostly graduates of Yale, they were conservative federalists who attacked their political opponents with satirical verse. Members included Joel Barlow, Timothy Dwight IV, David Humphreys, John Trumbull, Lemuel Hopkins, Richard Alsop, and Theodore Dwight. Works produced by the group include: The Anarchiad (published in the New Haven Gazette from 1786? 1787) The Political Greenhouse (Connecticut Courant, 1799) The Echo (American Mercury, 1791? 1805) John Trumbull (1756-1843)  ·believed in poetics, aesthetics, heroic couplet, satire. Member of a group of artists who painted important American historical events, Trumbull had an insider’s view of the War, serving as a colonel in the Continental Army and aide to Gen. Washington in the American Revolution  ·The Progress of Dullness (1772-1773) – n attack in three poems on educational methods of his time (three parts: 1. adventures of Tom Brainless, sent to college, he learns â€Å"the art of preaching,†; 2. Dick Hairbrain, a town fop, the son of a wealthy farmer, ridiculous in dress, empty of knowledge, but profound in swearing and cheap infidelity; 3. Miss Harriet Simper, slender female education, formerly in vogue, and the life of the coquette) Timothy Dwight (1752-1817)  ·continued Wigglesworth tradition  ·The Conquest of Canaan (pub. 1785) ? ambitious epic in eleven books, about George Washington & war of independence  ·Greenfield Hill (1794) – descriptive poem about small New England town, turned by Dwight into ideal place to live, with common wellbeing, where people take care of education, etc. It’s also a historical poem, about Peacock (Indian tribe) war and massacre of Indians  ·Travels in New England and New York (1820-1822) – huge publication, sort of a tourist guide, covers areas of Southern New England. He loved the place and wanted to commemorate it. Joel Barlow (1754-1812)  ·graduate of Yale, he died in Zarnowiec in Poland of pneumonia while he was on his journey to the Emperor in France  ·Poem, Spoken at the Public Commencement at Yale College (1781) ? becoming American diplomat Barlow witnessed French return to France after the war;  ·The Vision of Columbus (1787)? poem about future glory of America, Columbus visited by an Angel in prison (like in Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius where the author is visited by incarnation of philosophy; parallel of Columbus)  ·1807 ? Barlow changed his religious, political option, became enthusiast of the French Revolution;  ·1st American poem ? Barlow’s first attempt Phillis Wheatley (1753-1784)  ·black slave woman from Senegambia, purchased by Boston Whitley (sort of philanthropist). She managed to learn English, extremely gifted girl, learnt to read (Milton, Homer), write. She was allowed to study, learn Latin. She started to write good poetry, praised by George Washington, but Jefferson didn’t like her poetry ? point of controversy. She expressed sort of gratitude, makes references to Greek poetry, ancient Rome, neo-classical poetry, giving a testimony that she decided to adopt, make her way to elite, in England she was a well known poet. She died young. 15. 10. 2007 Michel Guillaume (also known as Hector Saint John de Crevecoeur) (1735? 1813)  ·French-American writer, fought on the French side in the French and Indian War, then moved to New York State, becoming a naturalized citizen. After travels through various colonies, he settled on a farm in Orange Co, New York.  ·wrote a number of essays and books which portrayed life in the New World  ·Letters from an American Farmer (1784) where he describes conditions on the frontier, says that in America men are free, it’s a beautiful, natural country of liberty. Sketches of the 18th century America ? slaves, animals, community, style of slavery practice in the South, American farmers are not happy because of the lies of Independence. Early American novels had to compete with a large amount of English novels. They were also fiction and lies. SENTIMENTAL NOVELS William Hill Brown (1765-1793)  ·The Power of Sympathy (1789) ? first American novel written by first American novelist. Controversial for its time, displays the themes of seduction, betrayal, and incest. It’s a moral novel written in letters. It’s against immoral behavior, sort of educational guide against seduction. Plot: written in correspondence: several letters between friends and lovers. two young people fall in love, but in fact they’re brother and sister. They woman kills herself because she had fallen in love with her own brother and then the man devastated commits suicide. Susanna Haswell Rowson (1762-1824)  ·Charlotte Temple (1791) – first American bestseller ? seduced young lady gives a birth to a child, Lucy, then dies. Successful novel but Susanna didn’t make money for it as the novel was published illegally. It is characterized by emphatic moralism and melodramatic language, the idea that women should take care of each other. Written to protect young women from the pain of social rejection, includes theme of seduction and betrayal. Samuel Richardson (1689-1761)  ·Clarissa, or, the History of a Young Lady (1748) – epistolary novel, tells the tragic story of a heroine whose quest for virtue is continually thwarted by her family. It is commonly cited as the longest novel in the English language. Clarissa is a beautiful and virtuous young lady whose family has become very wealthy only in recent years and is now eager to become part of the aristocracy. Her relatives attempt to force her to marry a rich but heartless man against her will and, more importantly, against her own sense of virtue. Desperate to remain free, she is tricked by a young gentleman of her acquaintance, Lovelace, into escaping with him. However, she refuses to marry him, longing ? unusual for a girl in her time ? to live by herself in peace. Lovelace, in the meantime, has been trying to arrange a fake marriage all along, and considers it a sport to add Clarissa to his long list of conquests. However, as he is more and more impressed by Clarissa, he finds it difficult to keep convincing himself that truly virtuous women do not exist. The continuous pressure he finds himself under, combined with his growing passion for Clarissa, drives him to extremes and eventually he rapes her. Clarissa manages to escape from him, but becomes dangerously ill. When she dies, however, it is in the full consciousness of her own virtue, and  trusting in a better life after death. Lovelace, tormented by what he has done but still unable to change, dies in a duel with Clarissa’s cousin. Clarissa’s relatives finally realise the misery they have caused, but discover that they are too late and Clarissa has already died.  ·Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) is an epistolary novel. It tells the story of a maid named Pamela whose master, Mr. B. , makes unwanted advances towards her. She rejects him continually, and her virtue is eventually rewarded when he shows his sincerity by proposing an equitable marriage to her. In the second part of the novel, Pamela attempts to accommodate herself to upper-class society and to build a successful relationship with him. The story was widely mocked at the time for its perceived licentiousness and it inspired Henry Fielding (among many others) to write two parodies: Shamela (1741), about Pamela’s true identity; and Joseph Andrews (1742), about Pamela’s brother. Hannah Webster Foster (1758-1840)  ·The Coquett,; or, The History of Eliza Wharton (1797) is an epistolary novel. Published anonymously until 1866, 26 years after Webster’s death. It was one of the best-selling novels of its time. The novel is a fictionalized account of the story of Elizabeth Wharton, the daughter of a clergyman who died after giving birth to a stillborn, illegitimate child at a roadside tavern. Writers and preachers of the day blamed her demise on the fact that she read romance novels, which gave her improper ideas and turned her into a coquette. Foster responded with The Coquette, which provided a more sympathetic portrayal of Wharton and described the difficulties faced by middle-class women. Tabitha Tenney (1762-1837)  ·Female Quixotism (1801) ? the heroine goes mad, she has a strange idea of love (all men are the heroes of romances). She had some candidates but she doesn’t like them. The book is rather a parody. The woman can’t get married, she makes wrong choices, rejects good man and accepts the dishonest ones. HORROR STORIES ? THE GOTHIC NOVEL Ann Radcliffe (1764 – 1823)  ·pioneer of the gothic novel. English writer.  ·The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) – follows the fortunes of Emily St. Aubert who suffers, among other misadventures, the death of her father, supernatural terrors in a gloomy castle, and the machinations of an Italian brigand. Often cited as the archetypal Gothic novel, Charles B. Brown (1771 – 1810).  ·he wanted to be professional writer but people didn’t want to read him. He quitted and became a political writer. He was the first American gothic writer.  ·Wieland, or, the Transformation (1798) ? Theodore Wieland is master of a landed estate, which he has inherited from his father, an immigrant from Germany. Wieland Senior was a man of strange inclinations who, having built a temple on a hillock in the grounds, devoted to his own idiosyncratic religion, later dies mysteriously of spontaneous combustion (samospalenie). Wieland inherits his father’s god-fearing disposition. However the rural idyll he shares with his wife, children, sister and best friend is shattered when he becomes prey to the trickery of Carwin: a mysterious ventriloquist (brzuchomowca) who has moved to the area after leading an undercover life of deception in Europe. Under the influence of religious mania and Carwin’s trickery Wieland kills his wife and children as a demonstration of his obedience to a ‘divine voice’. In court he expresses no remorse for his deeds and later escapes from prison to attempt the life of his sister, before being stopped in his tracks by the command of a final ‘divine voice’, which in reality emanates from Carwin. Wieland then commits suicide. The story is told as a first person narrative by Wieland’s sister Clara. As the story proceeds her initial calm and rational disposition is sorely tried by the uncanny and bloody events of the story, which reduces her, by the end, to a state of near mania. Her relations with the deceiver Carwin are ambiguous, veering between attraction and repulsion as the story unfolds. Apparently the novel was based on the true story of a multiple murder which took place at Tomhannock, New York in 1781.  ·Ormond; or, the Secret Witness (1799) ?  about lady who kills her seducer with a penknife. The novel engages with many of the period’s popular debates about women’s education, marriage, and the morality of violence, while the plot revolves around the Gothic themes of seduction, murder, incest, impersonation, romance and disease. Set in post-revolutionary Philadelphia, Ormond examines the prospects of the struggling nation by tracing the experiences of Constantia, a young virtuous republican who struggles to survive when her father’s business is ruined by a confidence man, and her friends and neighbors are killed by a yellow fever epidemic.  ·Arthur Mervyn (1799) – Arthur Mervyn suffers form yellow fever, discovered by Dr. Stevens who invites him home. Mr. Wortley comes over to Dr. Stevens, recognizes Arthur Mervyn, and reacts with extreme displeasure. Dr. Stevens demands an explanation. Mervyn begins to tell his story. This is the frame, nearly three quarters of the book bring Mervyn’s adventures up to this moment in time.  ·Edgar Huntly; or, Memoirs of a Sleep-Walker (1799) – The story of a young man who sleepwalks each night and is a threat to himself and others, unable to control his baser passions. Set outside Philadelphia in 1787, the book is a metaphor for the founding of a new nation, but can be read on a literal level as an American â€Å"Gothic† novel. Placed in the middle of wilderness. Young man wakes up in a dark hotel room, he doesn’t know how he got there, he has a tomahawk. Kills a panther and eats it raw. Eventually returns home. Isaac Mitchell (1835-1893)  ·Alonzo and Melissa (1804) ? gothic castle on Long Island. Explanation that the castle was built by Puritans. ADVENTURE NOVELS Royall Tyler (1757-1826)  ·The Algerine Captive (1797) – about a Harvard-educated American schoolteacher turned doctor, who was captured by Barbary (the Algerians) pirates in 1788 and sold into slavery in the City of Algiers. Description of conditions in which black slaves were kept on ships. At the end the character returns to USA.  ·The Contrast (1790) – is an American play in the tradition of the English Restoration comedies of the seventeenth century; it takes its cue from Sheridan’s The School for Scandal, a British comedy of manners that had revived that tradition a decade before. Royall uses the form to satirize Americans who follow British fashions and indulge in ‘British vices’. Hugh Henry Brackenridge (1748-1816)  ·Modern Chivalry: Containing the Adventures of Captain John Farrago and Teague O’Regan, His servant (1792) is a rambling, satirical American novel. The book is arguably the first important work of fiction about the American frontier and called â€Å"to the West what Don Quixote was to Europe†. â€Å"a more thoroughly American book than any written before 1833. † The model of modern chivalry was Don Quixote – they travel all over US. Cultural change was in Boston or around Boston in 18th century. New cultural force ? Unitarianism. Dutch Bishop, rejected the dogma of the predestination, unificated the Great Trinity to one God Father. Unitarians believed that people can improve themselves without grace of God. New, much more optimistic model of human being began. Sermons ? people should show likeness to God by practicing virtues, trying to be good. Henry Ware – educated at Harvard College, Professor at Harvard, precipitating a controversy between Unitarians and more conservative Calvinists. He took part in the formation of the Harvard Divinity School and the establishment of Unitarianism there in the following decades, publishing his debates with eminent Calvinists in the 1820s. William Emerson – In 1804, Emerson founded the Anthology Club, a Boston literary society, and wrote articles for the club’s The Monthly Anthology. This publication was the forerunner of the North American Review, America’s leading literary journal, and the Club’s reading room led to the founding in 1807 of the Boston Athenaeum. Joseph Stevens Buckminster – Upon his graduation, he became minister of the Brattle Street Church in Boston, and quickly launched an almost legendary career of eloquent preaching, biblical scholarship, and literary production which set the tone for the pattern of the minister as a man of letters. In 1801 he traveled to Europe and returned with books. He was the most brilliant member of the Anthology Club, an early editor of the Monthly Anthology, and in 1811 was appointed Dexter Lecturer at Harvard where he occupied the first Chair in Scripture. Buckminster’s influence on his contemporaries was striking. His mastery of the emerging New Criticism from German Biblical scholars led to his rational investigation of the Bible, subjecting its text to the same scrupulous scholarly investigation given other texts from antiquity. Founded in Boston in 1815, The North American Review (NAR) was the first literary magazine in the United States, and was published continually until 1940, when publication was suspended due to World War II. The Review’s first editor, William Tudor (1779-1830), and other founders had been members of Boston’s Anthology Club, and launched The North American Review to foster a genuine American culture. In its first few years it was published poetry, fiction, and miscellaneous essays on a bi-monthly schedule, but in 1818 it became a quarterly with more focused contents intent on improving society and on elevating culture. The Review promoted the improvement of public education and administration, with reforms in secondary schools, sound professional training of doctors and lawyers, rehabilitation of prisoners at the state penitentiary, and government by educated experts. Its editors and contributors included such literary and political New Englanders as John Adams, George Bancroft, Nathaniel Bowditch, William Cullen Bryant, Lewis Cass, Edward T. Channing, Caleb Cushing, Richard Henry Dana, Alexander Hill Everett, Edward Everett, Jared Sparks, George Ticknor, Gulian C. Verplanck, Daniel Webster. 22. 10. 2007 Norton Anthology ? early times, complaining about American literature, being poor, inferior to British, what should be done to improve Madame de Stael (1766-1817)  ·quickly translated into English, pub. in New York; as a French-speaking Swiss author living in Paris and abroad. She influenced literary tastes in Europe at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries Walter Cherning ? in North American review, tried to apply Madame’s ideas to American context The Analectic ? literary magazine There was no a really popular, one author in American unknown for Europe (in literature) until Irving. Washington Irving (1783 – 1859)  ·One of the first noted American authors to be highly acclaimed in Europe during his life time, Irving was a prolific author of fiction and non-fiction. He wrote numerous short stories, biographies, histories, and tales of his travels. His characters Ichabod Crane and Rip van Winkle are now icons of popular American culture, and many of Irving’s works have inspired adaptations to the stage and film.  ·Washington, while born sickly, was a mischievous and adventuresome young man, sneaking out at night to attend plays and frustrating his pious parents, especially his father. He roamed the city and environs, dreaming of far-off places–dreams that were partly fueled by one of his favourite books, Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe. Travelling would become a life-long passion. Although he was not an avid student, he studied law and became a clerk.  ·Suffering from ill-health off and on for many years, in 1804 Irving set sail from New York Harbour, the first of many trips abroad: he was going to a spa in Bordeaux, France to treat a lung ailment. He learned French, made many friends, travelled through Europe. In 1806 he returned to America.  ·with his brother William and James Kirke Paulding created a semi-monthly periodical World of New York to compete with the more sombre news publications of the day. While it was short-lived The Salmagundi Paper; or, the Whim-Whams and Opinions of Laucelot Langstaff, Esq. And Others. (1809) was met with great success. The Jonathan Swift-like satire and tongue-in-cheek pokes at politics, culture, and society was â€Å"to instruct the young, reform the old, correct the town, and castigate the age. †  ·The Salmagundi Papers (1809) – satirical work by Washington Irving (under the pen name Diedrich Kinckerbocker), with the title being derived from the dish. The work is nowadays remembered especially for first popularizing the sobriquet Gotham for New York City.  ·In a similar vein Irving composed his first novel, Knickerbocker’s History of New York (1809). A burlesque and comprehensive weaving of fact and fiction, his â€Å"History of New-York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty† is narrated by Diedrich Knickerbocker and won Irving much acclaim at home and abroad.  ·Irving’s short stories, first printed in America under his pseudonym Geoffrey Crayon between the years 1819-20 were collected in The Crayon Papers and The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon. They contain two of Irvings’ most famous tales: Rip van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. These stories were wildly popular in America and soon too in Europe.  ·His next novel was Bracebridge Hall, or, The Humorists, A Medley (1822). Published under the pseudonym Geoffrey Crayon, centers on an English manor, its inhabitants, and the tales they tell. Interspersed with witty, evocative sketches of country life among the English nobility is the well-known tale â€Å"The Stout Gentleman† and stories based on English, French, and Spanish folklore, vividly recounted with Irving’s inimitable blend of elegance and colloquial dash. They include Dolph Heyliger the story of a New Yorker who encounters a haunted house, ghosts, and a buried treasure.  ·It was followed by Tales of a Traveller (1824), which Irving considered one of his finer works. A last experiment with fiction before he turned to the writing of history, biography, and adaptation of folktales. Arranged in four sections, the miscellany of short fiction reveals elements of comedy and melodrama new to Irving’s work. The first three groups of stories have a European background, while the final five stories, supposedly â€Å"found among the papers of the late Diedrich Knickerbocker,† are set in New York and feature pirates and buried treasure.  ·In 1826 Irving moved to Madrid, Spain, where he set to writing his highly lauded The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (1828), Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada (1829), and Tales of the Alhambra (1832) – rich compendium of tales, deftly interwoven with historical accounts and picturesque sketches, was assembled from Spanish and Moorish folklore, history, guidebooks, and anecdotes of Irving’s experiences among the local residents. The forty-nine pieces range from stories based on Granada’s colorful history to graceful vignettes of its contemporary scene, from romantic descriptions of the local architecture and terrain to medieval tales of the supernatural.  ·Astoria: Anecdotes of an enterprise beyond the Rocky Mountains (1836). â€Å"†¦. I have felt anxious to get at the details of their adventurous expeditions among the savage tribes that peopled the depths of the wilderness. † It explores Irving’s impressions from travels in Canada and America as guest of John Jacob Astor’s Northwest Fur Company. Irving expresses his sympathy to the displaced, and dispossessed ‘savage’ Native American Peoples in such stories as â€Å"Philip of Pokanoket†, â€Å"Traits of Indian Character†, and â€Å"Origin of the White, the Red, and the Black Men†. first American Literary Account of the Wild West, surprised that his view is different from Ch. Browning’s (who portrayed the Westerners as wild animals). Irving portrays them as human, describes buffalo hunting (exaggerated a bit as he describes himself hunting). Counts as the earliest literary description of the West.  ·The Adventures of Captain Bonneville (1837) – Drawing on Bonneville’s own journals, Washington Irving chronicles the exploits and adventures of Captain James Bonneville, one of the earliest explorers of the American West, detailing his various journeys with mountain man Joseph Rutherford Walker; their discovery of Yosemite, Walker Pass, and the Bonneville Salt Flats; and life among the Native Americans and trappers of the West.  ·Irving’s last finished work, something he had been working on for many years but kept putting aside for other more pressing projects is his Life of George Washington (1859).  ·The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820) – The story is set circa 1790 in the Dutch settlement of Tarry Town, New York, in a secluded glen called Sleepy Hollow. It tells the story of Ichabod Crane, a lanky schoolmaster from Connecticut, who competes with Abraham â€Å"Brom Bones† Van Brunt, the town rowdy, for the hand of 18-year-old Katrina Van Tassel, only daughter of a wealthy farmer. As Crane leaves a party at the Van Tassel home on an autumn night, he is pursued by the Headless Horseman, supposedly the ghost of a Hessian trooper who lost his head to a cannonball during â€Å"some nameless battle† of the American Revolutionary War and who â€Å"rides forth to the scene of battle in nightly quest of his head. † Crane disappears from town, leaving Katrina to marry Brom Bones, who was â€Å"to look exceedingly knowing whenever the story of Ichabod was related. †  ·Rip Van Winkle (1819) – The story of Rip Van Winkle is set in the years immediately before (the early to mid-1770s) and after the American Revolutionary War (the early to mid-1790s). Rip Van Winkle, a villager of Dutch descent, lives in a nice village at the foot of New York’s Catskill Mountains. An amiable man whose home and farm suffer from his lazy neglect, he is loved by all but his wife. One autumn day he escapes his naggi.